Rfk biography timeline information

American politician and lawyer (–)

"RFK", "Robert Kennedy", and "Bobby Kennedy" redirect here. For other uses, see RFK (disambiguation) and Robert Kennedy (disambiguation).

Robert Francis Kennedy (November 20, – June 6, ), also known as RFK, was an American politician and lawyer. He served as the 64th United States attorney general from January to September , and as a U.S. senator from New York from January until his assassination in June , when he was running for the Democratic presidential nomination. Like his brothers John F. Kennedy and Ted Kennedy, he was a prominent member of the Democratic Party and is considered an icon of modern American liberalism.^[1]

Born into the prominent Kennedy family in Brookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy attended Harvard University, and later received his law degree from the University of Virginia. He began his career as a correspondent for The Boston Post and as a lawyer at the Justice Department, but later resigned to manage his brother John's successful campaign for the U.S. Senate in The following year, Kennedy worked as an assistant counsel to the Senate committee chaired by Senator Joseph McCarthy. He gained national attention as the chief counsel of the Senate Labor Rackets Committee from to , where he publicly challenged Teamsters President Jimmy Hoffa over the union's corrupt practices. Kennedy resigned from the committee to conduct his brother's successful campaign in the presidential election. He was appointed United States attorney general at the age of 35, one of the youngest cabinet members in American history.^[2] Kennedy served as John's closest advisor until the latter's assassination in ^[3]

Kennedy's tenure is known for advocating for the civil rights movement, the fight against organized crime, and involvement in U.S. foreign policy related to Cuba.^[4] He authored his account of the Cuban Missile Crisis in a book titled Thirteen Days. As attorney general, Kennedy authorized the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to wiretapMartin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference on a limited basis.^[5] After his brother's assassination, he remained in office during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson for several months. He left to run for the U.S. Senate from New York in and defeated Republican incumbent Kenneth Keating, overcoming criticism that he was a "carpetbagger" from Massachusetts.^[6][7] In office, Kennedy opposed U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and raised awareness of poverty by sponsoring legislation designed to lure private business to blighted communities (i.e., Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration project). He was an advocate for issues related to human rights and social justice by traveling abroad to eastern Europe, Latin America, and South Africa, and formed working relationships with Martin Luther King Jr., Cesar Chavez, and Walter Reuther.

In , Kennedy became a leading candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency by appealing to poor, African American, Hispanic, Catholic, and young voters.^[8] His main challenger in the race was Senator Eugene McCarthy. Shortly after winning the California primary around midnight on June 5, , Kennedy was shot by Sirhan Sirhan, a year-old Palestinian, allegedly in retaliation for his support of Israel following the Six-Day War. Kennedy died 25 hours later. Sirhan was arrested, tried, and convicted, though Kennedy's assassination, like his brother's, continues to be the subject of widespread analysis and numerous conspiracy theories.^[9]

Early life

Robert Francis Kennedy was born outside Boston in Brookline, Massachusetts, on November 20, , to Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., a politician and businessman, and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy, a philanthropist and socialite. He was the seventh of their nine children.^[10] Robert described his position in the family hierarchy by saying, "When you come from that far down, you have to struggle to survive."^[11] His parents were members of two prominent Irish-American families that were active in the Massachusetts Democratic Party.^[12] All four of Kennedy's grandparents were children of Irish immigrants.^[13] His eight siblings were Joseph Jr., John, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Jean, and Ted.^[14]

Starting from a solidly middle-class family in Boston, his father amassed a fortune and established trust funds for his nine children that guaranteed lifelong financial security.^[15][16] Turning to politics, Joe Sr. became a leading figure in the Democratic Party and had the money and connections to play a central role in the family's political ambitions.^[17] During Robert's childhood, his father dubbed him the "runt" of the family and wrote him off. He focused greater attention on his two eldest sons, Joseph Jr., and John.^[14] His parents involved their children in discussions of history and current affairs at the family dinner table.^[18] "I can hardly remember a mealtime," Kennedy reflected, "when the conversation was not dominated by what Franklin D. Roosevelt was doing or what was happening in the world. Since public affairs had dominated so much of our actions and discussions, public life seemed really an extension of family life."^[19]

Kennedy was raised at the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts; La Querida in Palm Beach, Florida; and Bronxville, New York; as well as London, where his father served as the U.S. ambassador to the Court of St James's from to ^[20][21] When the Kennedy family returned to the United States just before the outbreak of World War II in Europe,^[22] Robert was shipped off to an assortment of boarding schools in New England: St. Paul's, a Protestant school in Concord, New Hampshire;^[23]Portsmouth Priory, a Benedictine Catholic school in Portsmouth, Rhode Island;^[24][25] then, in September , to Milton Academy, a preparatory school near Boston in Milton, Massachusetts, for 11th and 12th grades.^[26] Kennedy graduated from Milton in May ^[27] Kennedy later said that, during childhood, he was "going to different schools, always having to make new friends, and that I was very awkward [a]nd I was pretty quiet most of the time. And I didn't mind being alone."^[28]

At Milton Academy, Kennedy met and became friends with David Hackett. Hackett admired Kennedy's determination to bypass his shortcomings, and remembered him redoubling his efforts whenever something did not come easy to him, which included athletics, studies, success with girls, and popularity.^[29] Hackett remembered the two of them as "misfits", a commonality that drew him to Kennedy, along with an unwillingness to conform to how others acted even if doing so meant not being accepted. He had an early sense of virtue; he disliked dirty jokes and bullying, once stepping in when an upperclassman tried bothering a younger student.^[30] The headmaster at Milton would later summarize that he was a "very intelligent boy, quiet and shy, but not outstanding, and he left no special mark on Milton".^[11]

As a teenager, Kennedy secured a clerking job at the same East Boston bank where his father had once worked.^[31][32] Kennedy was bored by the drudgery, though he enjoyed taking the Boston subway and encountering, for the first time, "common folk". He began to notice inequity in the wider world. On a trip to the family's home in Hyannis Port, Kennedy began questioning his father about the poverty he glimpsed from the train window. "Couldn't something be done about the poor people living in those bleak tenements?" he asked.^[33][34]

Naval service (–)

Six weeks before his 18th birthday in , Kennedy enlisted in the United States Naval Reserve as a seaman apprentice.^[35] He was released from active duty in March , when he left Milton Academy early to report to the V Navy College Training Program at Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts from March to November He was relocated to Bates College in Lewiston, Maine from November to June ,^[36] where he received a specialized Vdegree along with 15 others.^[37] During the college's winter carnival, Robert built a snow replica of a Navy boat.^[38][39] He returned to Harvard in June , completing his post-training requirements in January ^[40]

Kennedy's oldest brother Joseph Jr. died in August ,^[41] when his bomber exploded during a volunteer mission known as Operation Aphrodite. Robert was most affected by his father's reaction to his eldest son's passing. He appeared completely heartbroken, and his peer Fred Garfield commented that Kennedy developed depression and questioned his faith for a short time. After his brother's death, Robert gained more attention, moving higher up the family patriarchy.^[42] On December 15, , the U.S. Navy commissioned the destroyer USS&#;Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., and shortly thereafter granted Kennedy's request to be released from naval-officer training to serve aboard Kennedy starting on February 1, , as a seaman apprentice on the ship's shakedown cruise in the Caribbean.^[40][43] On May 30, , he received his honorable discharge from the Navy.^[44] For his service in the Navy, Kennedy was eligible for the American Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal.

Further study and journalism (–)

College and law school

Throughout , Kennedy became active in his brother John's campaign for the U.S. House seat vacated by James Michael Curley; he joined the campaign full-time after his naval discharge. Schlesinger wrote that the election served as an entry into politics for both Robert and John.^[45] In September, Kennedy entered Harvard as a junior after receiving credit for his time in the V program.^[46] He worked hard to make the Harvard Crimson football team as an end; he was a starter and scored a touchdown in the first game of his senior year before breaking his leg in practice.^[46] He earned his varsity letter when his coach sent him in wearing a cast during the last minutes of a game against Yale.^[47] Kennedy graduated from Harvard in with a bachelor's degree in political science.^[48]

In September , he enrolled at the University of Virginia School of Law in Charlottesville.^[49] Kennedy adapted to this new environment, being elected president of the Student Legal Forum, where he successfully produced outside speakers including James M. Landis, William O. Douglas, Arthur Krock, Joseph McCarthy, and his brother John F. Kennedy. Kennedy's paper on Yalta, written during his senior year, is deposited in the Law Library's Treasure Trove.^[50] He graduated from law school in June , finishing 56th in a class of ^[51]

The Boston Post

See also: Robert F. Kennedy's visit to Palestine

Upon graduating from Harvard, Kennedy sailed on the RMS&#;Queen Mary with a college friend for a tour of Europe and the Middle East, accredited as a correspondent for The Boston Post, filing six stories.^[52] Four of these stories, submitted from Palestine shortly before the end of the British Mandate, provided a first-hand view of the tensions in the land.^[52] He was critical of British policy on Palestine and praised the Jewish people he met there, calling them "hardy and tough." Kennedy predicted that "before too long," the United States and Great Britain would be looking for a Jewish state to preserve a "toehold" of democracy in the region.^[53] He held out some hope after seeing Arabs and Jews working side by side but, in the end, feared that the hatred between the groups was too strong and would lead to a war.^[54] In June , Kennedy reported on the Berlin Blockade.^[55] He wrote home about the experience: "It is a very moving and disturbing sight to see plane after plane take off amidst a torrent of rain particularly when I was aboard one."^[56] In September , a few months after Kennedy graduated from law school, The Boston Post sent him to San Francisco to cover the convention that concluded the Treaty of Peace with Japan.^[57]

Senate committee counsel and political campaigns (–)

JFK Senate campaign and Joseph McCarthy (–)

In , Kennedy was admitted to the Massachusetts Bar.^[58][51] That November, he started work as a lawyer in the Internal Security Division of the U.S. Department of Justice, which prosecuted espionage and subversive-activity cases. In February , he was transferred to the Criminal Division to help prepare fraud cases against former officials of the Truman administration before a Brooklyn grand jury.^[59][60] On June 6, , he resigned to manage his brother John's U.S. Senate campaign in Massachusetts.^[61] JFK's victory was of great importance to the Kennedys, elevating him to national prominence and turning him into a serious potential presidential candidate. John's victory was also equally important to Robert, who felt he had succeeded in eliminating his father's negative perceptions of him.^[62]

In December , at his father's behest, Kennedy was appointed by family friend Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy as one of 15 assistant counsel to the U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations.^[63][64] Kennedy disapproved of McCarthy's aggressive methods of garnering intelligence on suspected communists.^[65] He resigned in July , but "retained a fondness for McCarthy".^[66] The period of July to January saw him at "a professional and personal nadir", feeling that he was adrift while trying to prove himself to his family.^[67]Kenneth O'Donnell and Larry O'Brien (who worked on John's congressional campaigns) urged Kennedy to consider running for Massachusetts Attorney General in , but he declined.^[68]

After a period as an assistant to his father on the Hoover Commission, Kennedy rejoined the Senate committee staff as chief counsel for the Democratic minority in February ^[69] That month, McCarthy's chief counsel Roy Cohn subpoenaed Annie Lee Moss, accusing her of membership in the Communist Party. Kennedy revealed that Cohn had called the wrong Annie Lee Moss and he requested the file on Moss from the FBI. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover had been forewarned by Cohn and denied him access, calling Kennedy "an arrogant whippersnapper".^[70] When Democrats gained a Senate majority in January , Kennedy became chief counsel and was a background figure in the televised Army–McCarthy hearings of into McCarthy's conduct.^[71] The Moss incident turned Cohn into an enemy, which led to Kennedy assisting Democratic senators in ridiculing Cohn during the hearings. The animosity grew to the point where Cohn had to be restrained after asking Kennedy if he wanted to fight him.^[70] For his work on the McCarthy committee, Kennedy was included in a list of Ten Outstanding Young Men of , created by the U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce. His father had arranged the nomination, his first national award.^[72] In , Kennedy was admitted to practice before the United States Supreme Court.^[73]

Stevenson aide and focus on organized labor (–)

Kennedy was a Massachusetts delegate at the Democratic National Convention,^[74] having replaced Tip O'Neil at the request of his brother John, joining in what was ultimately an unsuccessful effort to help JFK get the vice-presidential nomination.^[75]

Kennedy went on to work as an aide to Adlai Stevenson II during the presidential general election which helped him learn how national campaigns worked, in preparation for a future run by his brother, John.^[76] Unimpressed with Stevenson, he acknowledged in an interview a decade later that he had voted for incumbent Dwight D. Eisenhower.^[77]

Senate Rackets Committee

From to , he made a name for himself while serving as the chief counsel to the U.S. Senate's Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor and Management (also known as the Senate Rackets Committee) under chairman John L. McClellan.^[78][79] Kennedy was given authority over testimony scheduling, areas of investigation, and witness questioning by McClellan, a move that was made by the chairman to limit attention to himself and allow outrage by organized labor to be directed toward Kennedy.^[80] In a famous scene, Kennedy and his brother John (also a member of the Senate Rackets Committee) squared off with Teamsters Union president Jimmy Hoffa during the antagonistic argument that marked Hoffa's testimony.^[81] Kennedy's investigations convinced him that Hoffa had worked with mobsters, extorted money from employers, and raided Teamster pension funds.^[82] During the hearings, Kennedy received criticism from liberal critics and other commentators both for his outburst of impassioned anger and doubts about the innocence of those who invoked the Fifth Amendment.^[83] Senators Barry Goldwater and Karl Mundt wrote to each other and complained about "the Kennedy boys" having hijacked the McClellan Committee by their focus on Hoffa and the Teamsters. They believed Kennedy covered for Walter Reuther and the United Automobile Workers (UAW), a union which typically would back Democratic office seekers. Amidst the allegations, Kennedy wrote in his journal that the two senators had "no guts" as they never addressed him directly, only through the press.^[84] Although the Rackets investigations produced few criminal prosecutions, glossy magazines began running glowing spreads: Life ("Young Man with Tough Questions"^[85]) and the Saturday Evening Post ("The Amazing Kennedys") helped raise the Kennedy profile.^[86] "Two boyish young men from Boston," wrote a Look magazine reporter, "have become hot tourist attractions in Washington."^[87] Kennedy left the committee in September in order to manage his brother's presidential campaign.^[88] The following year, Kennedy published The Enemy Within, a book which described the corrupt practices within the Teamsters and other unions that he had helped investigate.^[89]

Kennedy went to work on the presidential campaign of his brother, John.^[90] In contrast to his role in his brother's previous campaign eight years prior, Kennedy gave stump speeches throughout the primary season, gaining confidence as time went on.^[91] His strategy "to win at any cost" led him to call on Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr. to attack Senator Hubert Humphrey as a draft dodger; Roosevelt eventually did make the statement that Humphrey avoided service.^[92]

Concerned that John Kennedy was going to receive the Democratic Party's nomination, some supporters of Lyndon Johnson, who was also running for the nomination, revealed to the press that John had Addison's disease, saying that he required life-sustaining cortisone treatments. Though in fact a diagnosis had been made, Robert tried to protect his brother by denying the allegation, saying that John had never had "an ailment described classically as Addison's disease."^[93] After securing the nomination, John Kennedy nonetheless chose Johnson as his vice-presidential nominee. Robert, who favored labor leader Walter Reuther,^[94] tried unsuccessfully to convince Johnson to turn down the offer, leading him to view Robert with contempt afterward.^[95][96] Robert had already disliked Johnson prior to the presidential campaign, seeing him as a threat to his brother's ambitions.^[97]

In October, just a few weeks before the election, Kennedy was involved in securing the release of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. from a jail in Atlanta.^[98] He spoke with Georgia Governor Ernest Vandiver and later Judge Oscar Mitchell, after the judge had sentenced King for violating his probation when he protested at a whites-only snack bar.^[99]

Attorney General of the United States (–)

Nomination and confirmation

After winning the presidential election, president-elect John F. Kennedy appointed his younger brother as U.S. attorney general.^[] The president-elect's first choice for the slot had been Governor Abraham Ribicoff, but the Connecticut politician declined the offer.^[] Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. pushed for Robert Kennedy to get the position, in part on the grounds that the president would need someone in his cabinet with whom he had an absolute trust.^[] Both brothers harbored doubts about the proposed appointment, but first John decided it was a good idea and then Robert was persuaded to accept it.^[] The choice was controversial, with publications including The New York Times and The New Republic calling him inexperienced and unqualified.^[] He had no experience in any state or federal court,^[] causing the president to joke, "I can't see that it's wrong to give him a little legal experience before he goes out to practice law."^[]

Within the United States Senate, the Republican Senate Minority Leader, Everett Dirksen, expressed doubts about Kennedy's level of legal experience but found Kennedy competent otherwise and supported the president's ability to choose his own cabinet members.^[][] Another prominent Republican, Leverett Saltonstall, supported Kennedy with enthusiasm.^[] There was some thought that Southern Democrats might oppose the nomination.^[] The chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee, James Eastland, had some liking for Kennedy, but another influential southerner, Richard Russell Jr., was not favorably disposed.^[] At the behest of Vice President-elect Johnson, who wanted to demonstrate that he was still politically relevant,^[]Bobby Baker, the Senate majority secretary and a protégé of Johnson, helped persuade Russell to not move against the appointment.^[] How important Johnson's intercession was is uncertain,^[] as still other southern Democrats, such as McClellan and Sam Ervin, embraced Kennedy due to his past work on the Senate Labor Rackets Committee,^[][] and overall the nomination was likely never in doubt.^[] On January 13, Kennedy testified before the Judiciary Committee for two hours,^[] with questioning that was largely friendly.^[] Pressed by Roman Hruska about his lack of experience,^[] Kennedy responded: "In my estimation I think that I have had invaluable experience&#; I would not have given up one year of experience that I have had over the period since I graduated from law school for experience practicing law in Boston."^[] At the conclusion of the hearing, Kennedy's nomination received unanimous approval from the committee.^[]

All of President Kennedy's cabinet nominations were approved by the Senate on January 21, ,^[] during a single three-and-a-half-hour session,^[] with the other nominees being confirmed by unanimous voice votes.^[] However, Senator Gordon Allott, a Republican from Colorado who deemed Kennedy unqualified and had come out against the nomination a week earlier,^[] requested a division vote on the candidate, in which members indicate their sentiment by standing.^[] In the event, Allott was the only senator who rose in opposition to the nomination.^[][] The new attorney general, along with the other cabinet members, was sworn in later that day.^[]

For the position of Deputy Attorney General, Kennedy chose Byron White, who helped Kennedy select the rest of the department's staff.^[] These included Archibald Cox as Solicitor General; among the Assistant Attorney Generals, Nicholas Katzenbach, Burke Marshall, and Ramsey Clark; and press aides Edwin O. Guthman and John Seigenthaler.^[] The scholars and historians Alexander Bickel, Jeff Shesol, and Evan Thomas have all noted that with these picks, Kennedy showed he was not averse to surrounding himself with very able people who had more qualifications and experience than he did.^[]

Author James W. Hilty concludes that Kennedy "played an unusual combination of roles—campaign director, attorney general, executive overseer, controller of patronage, chief adviser, and brother protector" and that nobody before him had had such power.^[] To a great extent, President Kennedy sought the counsel of his younger brother, with Robert being the president's closest adviser and confidant.^[] Kennedy exercised widespread authority over every cabinet department, leading the Associated Press to dub him "Bobby—Washington's No. 2-man."^[][] The president once remarked about his brother, "If I want something done and done immediately I rely on the Attorney General. He is very much the doer in this administration, and has an organizational gift I have rarely if ever seen surpassed."^[]

Organized crime and the Teamsters

As attorney general, Kennedy pursued a relentless crusade against organized crime and the Mafia, sometimes disagreeing on strategy with FBI DirectorJ. Edgar Hoover. Through speeches and writing, Kennedy alerted the country to the existence of a "private government of organized crime with an annual income of billions, resting on a base of human suffering and moral corrosion". He established the first coordinated program involving all 26 federal law enforcement agencies to investigate organized crime.^[79] The Justice Department targeted prominent Mafia leaders like Carlos Marcello and Joey Aiuppa; Marcello was deported to Guatemala, while Aiuppa was convicted of violating of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of ^[] In , Kennedy worked to secure the passage of anti-racketeering legislation (Wire Act, Travel Act, and Interstate Transportation of Paraphernalia Act) to prohibit interstate gambling. The Federal Wire Act specifically targeted the use of wire communications and sought to disrupt the Mafia's gambling operations.^[][][] Convictions against organized crime figures rose by percent during his term.^[] Kennedy worked to shift Hoover's focus away from communism, which Hoover saw as a more serious threat, to organized crime.^[] According to James Neff, Kennedy's success in this endeavor was due to his brother's position, giving the attorney general leverage over Hoover.^[] Biographer Richard Hack concluded that Hoover's dislike for Kennedy came from his being unable to control him.^[]

He was relentless in his pursuit of Teamsters Union president Jimmy Hoffa, due to Hoffa's known corruption in financial and electoral matters, both personally and organizationally,^[] creating a so-called "Get Hoffa" squad of prosecutors and investigators.^[] The enmity between the two men was intense, with accusations of a personal vendetta—what Hoffa called a "blood feud"—exchanged between them.^[][] On July 7, , after Hoffa was reelected to the Teamsters presidency, RFK told reporters the government's case against Hoffa had not been changed by what he called "a small group of teamsters" supporting him.^[][] The following year, it was leaked that Hoffa had claimed to a Teamster local that Kennedy had been "bodily" removed from his office, the statement being confirmed by a Teamster press agent and Hoffa saying Kennedy had only been ejected.^[] On March 4, , Hoffa was convicted in Chattanooga, Tennessee, of attempted bribery of a grand juror during his conspiracy trial in Nashville and sentenced to eight years in prison and a $10, fine.^[][] After learning of Hoffa's conviction by telephone, Kennedy issued congratulatory messages to the three prosecutors.^[] While on bail during his appeal, Hoffa was convicted in a second trial held in Chicago, on July 26, , on one count of conspiracy and three counts of mail and wire fraud for improper use of the Teamsters' pension fund, and sentenced to five years in prison.^[][] Hoffa spent the next three years unsuccessfully appealing his convictions, and began serving his aggregate prison sentence of 13 years (eight years for bribery, five years for fraud)^[] on March 7, , at the Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary in Pennsylvania.^[]

Juvenile delinquency

In his first press conference as attorney general in , Kennedy spoke of an "alarming increase" in juvenile delinquency. In May , Kennedy was named chairman of the President's Committee on Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime (PCJD), with lifelong friend David Hackett as director. After visits to blighted communities, Kennedy and Hackett concluded that delinquency was the result of racial discrimination and lack of opportunities. The committee held that government must not impose solutions but empower the poor to develop their own. The PCJD provided comprehensive services (education, employment, and job training) that encouraged self-sufficiency.^[] In September , the Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Offenses Control Act was signed into law.^[]

Civil rights

Kennedy expressed the administration's commitment to civil rights during a May 6, , speech at the University of Georgia School of Law:

Our position is quite clear. We are upholding the law. The federal government would not be running the schools in Prince Edward County any more than it is running the University of Georgia or the schools in my home state of Massachusetts. In this case, in all cases, I say to you today that if the orders of the court are circumvented, the Department of Justice will act. We will not stand by or be aloof—we will move. I happen to believe that the decision was right. But my belief does not matter. It is now the law. Some of you may believe the decision was wrong. That does not matter. It is the law.^[]

FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover viewed civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. as an upstart troublemaker,^[] calling him an "enemy of the state".^[] In February , Hoover presented Kennedy with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advisers were communists. Concerned about the allegations, the FBI deployed agents to monitor King in the following months.^[] Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspected associations. In response, King agreed to ask suspected communist Jack O'Dell to resign from the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), but he refused to heed to the request to ask Stanley Levison, whom he regarded as a trusted advisor, to resign. In October ,^[] Kennedy issued a written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the SCLC, King's civil rights organization. Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so",^[5] Hoover extended the clearance so that his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy.^[] The wiretapping continued through June and was revealed in , days before Kennedy's death.^[] Relations between the Kennedys and civil-rights activists could be tense, partly due to the administration's decision that a number of complaints King filed with the Justice Department between and be handled "through negotiation between the city commission and Negro citizens".^[]

Kennedy played a large role in the response to the Freedom Riders protests. He acted after the Anniston bus bombing to protect the Riders in continuing their journey, sending John Seigenthaler, his administrative assistant, to Alabama to try to calm the situation.^[] Kennedy called the Greyhound Company and demanded that it obtain a coach operator who was willing to drive a special bus for the continuance of the Freedom Ride from Birmingham to Montgomery, on the circuitous journey to Jackson, Mississippi.^[][] Later, during the attack and burning by a white mob of the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, which King and 1, sympathizers attended, the attorney general telephoned King to ask for his assurance that they would not leave the building until the U.S. Marshals and National Guard he sent had secured the area. King proceeded to berate Kennedy for "allowing the situation to continue". King later publicly thanked him for dispatching the forces to break up the attack that might otherwise have ended his life.^[] Kennedy then negotiated the safe passage of the Freedom Riders from the First Baptist Church to Jackson, where they were arrested.^[] He offered to bail the Freedom Riders out of jail, but they refused, which upset him.^[] On May 29, , Kennedy petitioned the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to issue regulations banning segregation, and the ICC subsequently decreed that by November 1, bus carriers and terminals serving interstate travel had to be integrated.^[]

Kennedy's attempts to end the Freedom Rides early were tied to an upcoming summit with Nikita Khrushchev in Vienna and Charles de Gaulle in Paris. He believed the continued international publicity of race riots would tarnish the president heading into international negotiations.^[] This attempt to curtail the Freedom Rides alienated many civil rights leaders who, at the time, perceived him as intolerant and narrow-minded.^[] Historian David Halberstam wrote that the race question was for a long time a minor ethnic political issue in Massachusetts where the Kennedy brothers came from, and had they been from another part of the country, "they might have been more immediately sensitive to the complexities and depth of black feelings".^[] In an attempt to better understand and improve race relations, Kennedy held a private meeting on May 24, , in New York City with a black delegation coordinated by prominent author James Baldwin. The meeting became antagonistic, and the group reached no consensus. The black delegation generally felt that Kennedy did not understand the full extent of racism in the United States, and only alienated the group more when he tried to compare his family's experience with discrimination as Irish Catholics to the racial injustice faced by African Americans.^[]

In September , Kennedy sent a force of U.S. Marshals, U.S. Border Patrol agents, and deputized federal prison guards to the University of Mississippi, to enforce a federal court order allowing the admittance of the institution's first African American student, James Meredith.^[] The attorney general had hoped that legal means, along with the escort of federal officers, would be enough to force Governor Ross Barnett to allow Meredith's admission. He also was very concerned there might be a "mini-civil war" between federal troops and armed protesters.^[] President Kennedy reluctantly sent federal troops after the situation on campus turned violent.^[] The ensuing Ole Miss riot of resulted in injuries and two deaths,^[] but Kennedy remained adamant that black students had the right to the benefits of all levels of the educational system.

Kennedy saw voting as the key to racial justice and collaborated with Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to create the landmark Civil Rights Act of , which helped bring an end to Jim Crow laws.^[] Throughout the spring of , Kennedy worked alongside Senator Hubert Humphrey and Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen in search of language that could work for the Republican caucus and overwhelm the Southern Democrats' filibuster. In May, a deal was secured that could obtain a two-thirds majority in the Senate—enough to end debate. Kennedy did not see the civil rights bill as simply directed at the South and warned of the danger of racial tensions above the Mason–Dixon line. "In the North", he said, "I think you have had de facto segregation, which in some areas is bad or even more extreme than in the South", adding that people in "those communities, including my own state of Massachusetts, concentrated on what was happening in Birmingham, Alabama or Jackson, Mississippi, and didn't look at what was needed to be done in our home, our own town, or our own city." The ultimate solution "is a truly major effort at the local level to deal with the racial problem—Negroes and whites working together, within the structure of the law, obedience to the law, and respect for the law."^[]

Between December and December , Kennedy also expanded the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division by 60 percent.^[]

U.S. Steel

At the president's direction, Kennedy used the power of federal agencies to influence U.S. Steel not to institute a price increase, and announced a grand jury probe to investigate possible collusion and price fixing by U.S. Steel in collaboration with other major steel manufacturers.^[]The Wall Street Journal wrote that the administration had set prices of steel "by naked power, by threats, by agents of the state security police". Yale law professor Charles Reich wrote in The New Republic that the Justice Department had violated civil liberties by calling a federal grand jury to indict U.S. Steel so quickly, then disbanding it after the price increase did not occur.^[]

Berlin

As one of the president's closest White House advisers, Kennedy played a crucial role in the events surrounding the Berlin Crisis of ^[] Operating mainly through a private, backchannel connection to Soviet GRU officer Georgi Bolshakov, he relayed important diplomatic communications between the U.S. and Soviet governments.^[] Most significantly, this connection helped the U.S. set up the Vienna Summit in June , and later to defuse the tank standoff with the Soviets at Berlin's Checkpoint Charlie in October.^[][] Kennedy's visit with his wife to West Berlin in February demonstrated U.S. support for the city and helped repair the strained relationship between the administration and its special envoy in Berlin, Lucius D. Clay.^[]

Cuba

As his brother's confidant, Kennedy oversaw the CIA's anti-Castro activities after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in Cuba, which included covert operations that targeted Cuban civilians.^[] He also helped develop the strategy during the Cuban Missile Crisis to blockade Cuba instead of initiating a military strike that might have led to nuclear war.^[]

Allegations that the Kennedys knew of plans by the CIA to kill Fidel Castro, or approved of such plans, have been debated by historians over the years.^[] The "Family Jewels" documents, declassified by the CIA in , suggest that before the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the attorney general personally authorized one such assassination attempt.^[][] But there is evidence to the contrary, such as that Kennedy was informed of an earlier plot involving the CIA's use of Mafia bosses Sam Giancana and John Roselli only during a briefing on May 7, , and in fact directed the CIA to halt any existing efforts directed at Castro's assassination.^[][] Biographer Thomas concludes that "the Kennedys may have discussed the idea of assassination as a weapon of last resort. But they did not know the particulars of the Harvey-Rosselli operation – or want to."^[] Concurrently, Kennedy served as the president's personal representative in Operation Mongoose, the post–Bay of Pigs covert operations program the president established in November ^[] Mongoose was meant to incite revolution in Cuba that would result in Castro's downfall.^[][]

During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October , Kennedy proved himself to be a gifted politician with an ability to obtain compromises, tempering aggressive positions of key figures in the hawk camp. The trust the president placed in him on matters of negotiation was such that his role in the crisis is today seen as having been of vital importance in securing a blockade, which averted a full military engagement between the United States and the Soviet Union.^[] On October 27, Kennedy secretly met with Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin. They reached a basic understanding: the Soviet Union would withdraw their missiles from Cuba, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba.^[][] Kennedy also informally proposed that the Jupiter MRBMs in Turkey would be removed^[] "within a short time after this crisis was over".^[] On the last night of the crisis, President Kennedy was so grateful for his brother's work in averting nuclear war that he summed it up by saying, "Thank God for Bobby."^[] Kennedy authored his account of the crisis in a book titled Thirteen Days (posthumously published in ).^[]

Japan

At a summit meeting with Japanese prime minister Hayato Ikeda in Washington D.C. in , President Kennedy promised to make a reciprocal visit to Japan in ,^[] but the decision to resume atmospheric nuclear testing forced him to postpone such a visit, and he sent Robert in his stead.^[] Kennedy arrived in Tokyo in February at a very sensitive time in U.S.-Japan relations, shortly after the massive Anpo protests against the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty had highlighted anti-American grievances. Kennedy won over a highly skeptical Japanese public and press with his cheerful, open demeanor, sincerity, and youthful energy.^[] Most famously, Kennedy scored a public relations coup during a nationally televised speech at Waseda University in Tokyo. When radical Marxist student activists from Zengakuren attempted to shout him down, he calmly invited one of them on stage and engaged the student in an impromptu debate.^[] Kennedy's calmness under fire and willingness to take the student's questions seriously won many admirers in Japan and praise from the Japanese media, both for himself and on his brother's behalf.^[]

Assassination of John F. Kennedy

When President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, , Robert Kennedy was at home with aides from the Justice Department. J. Edgar Hoover called and told him his brother had been shot.^[] Hoover then hung up before he could ask any questions. Kennedy later said he thought Hoover had enjoyed telling him the news.^[][] Shortly after the call from Hoover, Kennedy phoned McGeorge Bundy at the White House, instructing him to change the locks on the president's files. He ordered the Secret Service to dismantle the hidden taping system in the Oval Office and cabinet room. He scheduled a meeting with CIA director John McCone and asked if the CIA had any involvement in his brother's death. McCone denied it, with Kennedy later telling investigator Walter Sheridan that he asked the director "in a way that he couldn't lie to me, and they [the CIA] hadn't".^[]

An hour after the president was shot, Robert Kennedy received a phone call from the newly ascended President Johnson before Johnson boarded Air Force One. RFK remembered their conversation starting with Johnson demonstrating sympathy before the president stated his belief that he should be sworn in immediately; RFK opposed the idea since he felt "it would be nice" for President Kennedy's body to return to Washington with the deceased president still being the incumbent.^[] Eventually, the two concluded that the best course of action would be for Johnson to take the oath of office before returning to Washington.^[] In his book We Band of Brothers, aide Edwin O. Guthman recounted Kennedy admitting to him an hour after receiving word of his brother's death that he thought he would be the one "they would get" as opposed to his brother.^[] In the days following the assassination, he wrote letters to his two eldest children, Kathleen and Joseph, saying that as the oldest Kennedy family members of their generation, they had a special responsibility to remember what their uncle had started and to love and serve their country.^[][] He was originally opposed to Jacqueline Kennedy's decision to have a closed casket, as he wanted the funeral to keep with tradition, but he changed his mind after seeing the cosmetic, waxen remains.^[]

The ten-month investigation by the Warren Commission concluded that the president had been assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald and that Oswald had acted alone.^[]